LP2 [1a] History and Policy
In this book we will look at the history of formalised (colonised) education in Aotearoa and towards where we might be heading as well as the important part you have been invited to participate in.
The coming of Compulsory Primary and then Secondary Education
Now for a “fly-over” of the history of compulsory primary and secondary education in New Zealand. It almost goes without saying that this section needs to be read in conjuction with all of the work you have done on te tiriti o Waitangi and historical factors that have put barriers up for participation in education. We also encourage you to make use of the reference list to make further explorations where you feel you need to.
The New Zealand schooling system was formalised and politicised with the introduction of the 1877 Education Act making school compulsory, secular, and free for all 7 – 13 year olds (Butterworth & Butterworth 1998; Codd & Openshaw, 2005; Openshaw, Lee & Lee, 1993; Simon & Massey, 1994). There is also a history of education pre-dating the 1877 Education Act which will help to frame the context.
In the early 19th Century, missionaries arrived in New Zealand to spread the gospel. What they found was a highly organised society with education traditions based in a strong oral culture (Sorrenson, 2014). Māori were welcoming and keen to learn from missionaries (Ballantyne, 2014; Smith, 2014). Introduced to written conventions, Māori were quick to develop their written language seeing the advantages it could bring (Ballantyne, 2014; Sorrenson, 2014). Māori were keen to learn of Western society so they could participate. Māori were not looking to assimilate, but to participate in ways which would benefit their people (Ballantyne, 2014).
School, from the colonisers perspective, was seen as a vehicle to reform Māori into acceptable Western societal norms (Simon & Massey, 1994; Sorrenson, 2014). Te reo Māori was banned from schools and children were punished if they used it.
The system framed this to be the fault of Māori rather than as systemic violence against Māori. Māori tribal landowners were criminalised and their ‘wealth’ (land) was stolen from them on the pretense of their apparent lawlessness (which was in fact defense of their land from confiscation, see for example Keenan, 2015). This history has remained largely unacknowledged, until recently.
Although the intention of education in New Zealand is to bring equity to all who participate, there remain instances where all cannot participate due to multiple complex issues such as access, cost and safety. When those who do not fit the standardised mould do manage to enter education, there are many barriers to participation through the general reproduction of social norms and economic status, despite children’s best efforts (Adams, Openshaw & Hamer, 2005; Bourdieu & Passeron, 1977; Cod, Harker & Nash, 1990; Coxon, Jenkins, Marshall & Massey, 1994; Jones, 1986).
The Now – Education in New Zealand Schools
The theory of knowledge has shifted (Benade, 2017; Bolstad et al, 2012; Gilbert, 2005) from what an individual knows to what they can do with what they know and more importantly how they can collaborate with others to synthesize new information (Benade, 2017; Bolstad et al, 2012; Gilbert, 2005).
Bolstad et al (2012) in their report to the Ministry of Education investigating Supporting Future-Orientated Learning and Teaching acknowledges the emergent nature of what is happening in New Zealand schools, describing it as “an emerging cluster of new ideas, beliefs, knowledge, theories and practices—some of which may be visible in some schools and classrooms, some which exist only in isolated pockets and others which are barely visible yet” (Bolstad et al, 2012, p. 1).
“All learning should make use of the natural connections that exist between learning areas and that link learning areas to the values and key competencies.” (Ministry of Education, 2007, p. 16).
So Where to From here?
Both Te Whariki and the 2007 New Zealand curriculum’s aspirational goal of an open, creative and contextualised curriculum, and its desire to see transformation in education to ensure the success of all children, demands unfolding the educational landscape in Aotearoa, New Zealand
Reference List
Adams, P., Openshaw, R., & Hamer, J. (2005). Education and society in Aotearoa New Zealand. Victoria, Australia: Cengage Learning Australia.
Ball, S. (2016). Neoliberal education? Confronting the slouching beast. Policy Futures in Education, 14(8), 1046-1059. doi: 10.1177/1478210316664259
Ballantyne, T. (2014). Entanglements of empire : Missionaries, Maori, and the question of the body. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com
Benade, L. (2017). Being a teacher in the 21st century. Singapore: Springer. https://doi-org.ezproxy.aut.ac.nz/10.1007/978-981-10-3782-5
Bolstad, R., Gilbert, J., McDowall, S., Bull, A., Boyd, S., & Hipkins, R. (2012). Supporting future-oriented learning & teaching – a New Zealand perspective. Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Education.
Bourdieu, P., & Passeron, J. C. (1977). Reproduction in education, society and culture. London, United Kingdom: Sage Publications.
Boyd, S. & Hipkins, R. (2012). Student inquiry and curriculum integration. Set: Research Information for Teachers, 3, 15-23. Retrieved from https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=058920011133304;res=IELNZC> ISSN: 0110-6376.
Brameld, T. (1972). Education as Self-Fulfilling Prophecy. The Phi Delta Kappan, 54(1), 8-61. Retrieved from www.jstor.org/stable/20373369
Brannon, L., Urbanski, C., Manship, L., Arnold, L., & Lannone, T. (2010). The ebay-ification of education: critical literacy in a consumerocracy. The English Journal, 99(3), 16-21. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40503476
Butterworth, G., & Butterworth, S. (1998). Reforming education: the New Zealand experience. Palmerston North, New Zealand: Dunmore Pres Limited.
Clark, J. (2005). The aims and functions of education in Aotearoa New Zealand. In P. Adams, R. Openshaw & J. Hamer, (Eds.), Education and society in Aotearoa New Zealand. Victoria, Australia: Dunmore Press.
Codd, J. A., Harker, R. K., & Nash, R. (1985). Political issues in New Zealand education. Palmerston North, New Zealand: Dunmore Press.
Codd, J., & Openshaw, R. (2005). The education system in Aotearoa New Zealand. In P. Adams, R. Openshaw, & J. Hamer (Eds.), Education and society in Aotearoa New Zealand. Victoria, Australia: Dunmore Press.
Coxon, E., Jenkins, K., Marchall, J., & Massey, L. (1994). The Politics of learning and teaching in Aotearoa-New Zealand. Palmerston North, New Zealand: Dunmore Press.
Cowie, B., Hipkins, R., Keown, P. & Boyd, S. (2011). The shape of curriculum change: A short discussion of key findings from the Curriculum Implementation Studies (CIES) project. Wellington, New Zealand: New Zealand Council for Educational Research.
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Ell, F. (2011). Teacher education in New Zealand. Journal of Education for Teaching, 37(4), 433-440. Doi: 10.1080/02607476.2011.61101
Ell, F. & Grudnoff, L. (2013). The politics of responsibility: teacher education and “persistent underachievement” in New Zealand. The Educational Forum, 77(1), 73-86. Doi: 10.1080/00131725.2013.739023
Fastier, M. (2016). Curriculum change, challenges and teacher responsibility. New Zealand Geographer, 72, 51–56. doi:10.1111/nzg.12108
Fernando, I. (2018). Taniwha in the room: eradicating disparities for Maori in criminal justice – is the legal system up for the challenge. Canterbury Law Review, 61. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.aut.ac.nz/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edshol&AN=edshol.hein.journals.cblrt24.5&site=eds-live
Friedman, T. (2016). Thank you for being late. London, United Kingdom: Penguin.
Gibbons, A. (2018). Neoliberalism, education policy and the life of the academic: A poetics of pedagogical resistance. Policy Futures in Education, 16(7), 918-930. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.aut.ac.nz/10.1177/1478210318774675
Gilbert, J. (2005). Catching the knowledge wave. Wellington, New Zealand: NCER Press.
Gonzalez, N., Moll, L. C., & Amanti, C. (2005). Funds of knowledge: theorizing practices in households, communities, and classrooms. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/aut/detail.action?docID=255629
Hoskins, T. K. & McKinley, E. (2015). New Zealand: Māori education in Aotearoa. In M. Crossley, G. Hancock, & T. Sprague, (Eds), Education in Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific. London, United Kingdom: Bloomsbury Academic.
Jones, A (1986). At school I’ve got a chance. University of Auckland, New Zealand.
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Keenan, D. (2015). Te Whitio Rongamai, and the resistance of Parihaka. Wellington, New Zealand: Huia.
Lee, G., & Lee, H. (2015). New Zealand: the politics of national standards in primary schools. In M. Crossley, G. Hancock, & T. Sprague, (Eds), Education in Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific. London, United Kingdom: Bloomsbury Academic.
McChesney, J., & Cowie, B. (2008). Communicating, thinking, and tools: exploring two of the key competencies. Curriculum Matters, 4, 102-112. Retrieved from https://www-nzcer-org-nz.ezproxy.aut.ac.nz/system/files/journals/curriculum-matters/downloads/CM2008_4_102.pdf
McDowall, S. & Hipkins, R. (2018). How the key competencies evolved over time: insights from the research. Wellington, New Zealand: New Zealand Council for Educational Research.
Ministry of Education. (1988). Tomorrow’s schools. Wellington, New Zealand: Government Printer.
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Openshaw, R., Lee, G., & Lee, H. (1993). Challenging the myths: rethinking New Zealand’s educational history. Palmerston North, New Zealand: Dunmore Press Limited.
Openshaw, R., & McKenzie, J. D. S. (1987). Reinterpreting the educational past : essays in the history of New Zealand education. Wellington, New Zealand: New Zealand Council for Educational Research.
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Puiu, T. (2013, October 13). Your smartphone is millions of times more powerful than all of NASA’s combined computing in 1969. Retrieved from https://www.zmescience.com/research/technology/smartphone-power-compared-to-apollo-432/
Quantz, R. A. (2014). Sociocultural studies in education: critical thinking for democracy. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/AUT/detail.action?docID=5260748#
Riley, T., & Ungerleider, C. (2012). Self-fulfilling Prophecy: How Teachers’ Attributions, Expectations, and Stereotypes Influence the Learning Opportunities Afforded Aboriginal Students. Canadian Journal of Education / Revue Canadienne De L’éducation, 35(2), 303-333. Retrieved from www.jstor.org/stable/canajeducrevucan.35.2.303
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Robinson, K. (2015). Creative schools: The grassroots revolution that’s transforming education. New York, NY: Viking.
Scholes, L. & Nagel, M. (2010). Engaging the creative arts to meet the needs of twenty-first-century boys. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 16(10), 969 – 984. https://doi-org.ezproxy.aut.ac.nz/10.1080/13603116.2010.538863
Simon, J., & Massey, L. (1994). Historical perspectives on education in New Zealand. In E. Coxon, K. Jenkins, J. Marshall, & L. Massey (Eds.), The Politics of learning and teaching in Aotearoa-New Zealand. Palmerston North, New Zealand: Dunmore Press.
Smith, I. (2014). Schooling on the missionary frontier: the Hohi mission station, New Zealand. International Journal of Historical Archaeology, 18(4), 612–628. https://doi-org.ezproxy.aut.ac.nz/10.1007/s10761-014-0272-3
Smith, L., Anderson, V., & Blanch, K. (2015). Five beginning teachers reflections on enacting New Zealand’s national standards. Teaching and Teacher Education, 54, 107 – 116. https://doi-org.ezproxy.aut.ac.nz/10.1016/j.tate.2015.11.014
Sorrenson, M. P. K. (2014). Ko te whenua te utu / land is the price: essays on Maori history, land and politics. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com
Shuker, R. (1987). The one best system? a revisionist history of state schooling in New Zealand. Palmerston North, New Zealand: Dunmore Press.
Slaughter, R. (1995). The foresight principle. London, Great Briton: Preager Publishers.
Thrupp, M. (2013). National standards for student achievement: is New Zealand’s idiosyncratic approach any better? Australian Journal of Language and Literacy, 36(2), 99-110. Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.aut.ac.nz/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=1&sid=60f7cb88-1942-4f43-b788-6dca9fde5b1b%40pdc-v-sessmgr01