Book: Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know

August 12, 2022

Book: Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know

Rebecca L. Oxford

Oxford, R.Language Learning Strategies: What every teacher should know. Heinle Cengage Learning, Boston, USA (1990). ISBN 9780838428627

Chapter One: Looking at Language Learning Strategies

Pg 24

Exercises to use with your students

Exercise 1.1. Embedded Strategies Game

Purpose

This game helps participants to become acquainted with language learning strategies and can be used with either teachers or students as participants. Participants are asked to determine which language learning strategies (from the list in this chapter) are embedded in, or suggested by, certain language activities. The game is a process of matching a number of language activities with the names of the relevant strategies, and thus acquaints participants with the whole system of strategies.

Each participant gets a copy of the strategy system from this chapter (Figure 1.4) and a list of language activities (given below).

Time

This game, which takes 1 to 2 hours, can be spread over several class periods. Total time required depends on the number of language activities used.

Instructions

1. Introduction Give out the materials (strategy system in Figure 1.4 and list of language activities below). Explain that participants will be divided into small groups. Each small group will try to identify the language learning strategies embedded in, or suggested by, the series of language activities. Explain that all the language activities refer to the target language.

Every language activity can be matched with one or more language learning strategies.

It is not necessary to consider the language activities in the order in which they are listed. Explain that participants must choose relevant strategies to match any given language activity on the list; but they must be able to justify or explain their selection of strategies! You might also tell participants they will not have access to complete definitions of the strategies; they will have only the strategy system, which lists the name of each strategy and shows how the strategies are grouped. The names are intentionally descriptive, so most participants will not have any trouble understanding the meaning of the strategies.

If you want to give a quick introduction to the strategy system itself, tell participants that some strategies deal directly with the target language, while other strategies do not deal with the language but instead support language learning indirectly through metacognitive, emotional, and social means. Do not give any more detail on the strategy system now; let the participants teach themselves to understand and use the system as they play the game.

Announce the time limit in advance. It does not really matter how many language activities a small group chooses to cover; the key is the number of relevant, justifiable strategies named. But encourage small groups to try to cover at least 15 language activities to get a general feeling for a variety of strategies.

NOTE: SCORING IS OPTIONAL. If you decide to score the game, explain how scoring works. Scoring: 1 point for each relevant strategy listed for any activity. The winning group is the one with the greatest number of relevant strategies matching the listed language activities within the time allowed. If you decide not to use scoring, Step 4 (below) can just be whole-group explanation of the strategy choices, with each small group contributing its ideas but without counting points.

2. Practice Run through one or two examples with the whole group before breaking up into smaller groups. To do this, read a language activity description (for instance, the description for LISTENING IN-see list below) to the whole group, and get participants to call out any strategies that are suggested by the activity (e.g., practicing naturalistically, paying attention). Ask for a very brief (one sentence) explanation or justification for each strategy named. Make sure everyone understands how to play.

3. Play Divide everyone into groups of three to five people. Each small group now works through the list of activities (in any order), writing down on one or more large sheets of paper the strategies they consider relevant and useful for each activity and making sure they can explain or justify their choices.

4. Explanation of strategy choices and determination of scores Reconvene the whole group and ask each small group to post its list visibly at the front of the room. Now ask a spokesperson from each group to discuss the language activities covered by the group, and explain the strategies the group matched with each activity. (Other members of the small group can help the spokesperson, if needed, by adding explanations or justifications.)

If the whole group generally agrees that the choice of a given strategy is a good one, the small group gets 1 point. The easier and more obvious activity-and-strategy matchings can be explained or justified in just a sentence, but participants might want to discuss in a little more detail the more difficult or borderline cases. You need to keep this discussion condensed enough so that all small groups will have an equal chance to present their findings.

Note that the small groups presenting later may have a slight advantage over the small groups that present earlier, in that they have heard what the earlier groups have said. Urge the later-presenting groups not merely to repeat what has been said, but to add something new, if they can, to justify their strategy choices.

If you feel any small group’s reasons for choosing a strategy are off course, ask questions to lead the group to understand, rather than just telling them the answer. Remember, there is often not just one solution appropriate.

to dealing with any given language activity; many strategies are often If you have decided to score the game, it is now time to let the small groups count up the number of points they have earned. Decide on a winning group–the one with the greatest number of relevant strategies (regardless of the number of language activities covered).

5. Discussion Be sure to leave at least 15 to 25 minutes for this discussion, which helps participants understand and consolidate what they have learned. Discuss what the participants learned about strategies, using the following questions as a guide. Were certain strategies relevant across whole-group explanation of the strategy choices, with each small group contributing its ideas but without counting points.

The easier and more obvious activity-and-strategy matchings can be explained or justified in just a sentence, but participants might want to discuss in a little more detail the more difficult or borderline cases. You need to keep this discussion condensed enough so that all small groups will have an equal chance to present their findings.

to dealing with any given language activity; many strategies are often

If you have decided to score the game, it is now time to let the small groups count up the number of points they have earned. Decide on a winning group–the one with the greatest number of relevant strategies (regardless of the number of language activities covered).

List of Language Activities for the Embedded Strategies Game

ALL THE NEWS THAT FITS, WE PRINT- Read the newspaper in the target language to practice the language and keep up with events.

AS THE WORLD TURNS–Watch a soap opera every day to practice understanding the target language.

BRAINSTORM-_-Brainstorm with other language learners some possible topics for writing in the new language.

BREAK-DOWN-_Break down into parts any long words and expressions in the new language that you find overwhelming.

CANNED TALK-Learn some common “canned” routines by heart in the new language so you can rattle them off easily when you need them in social conversation.

CHECK-UP-_-Check yourself to see the kinds of errors you make in the new language and then try figure out why.

CINEMA CITY–Go to a foreign film festival to get more exposure to the new language.

COLORS-_Color-code your language notebook so you can find things easily.

CUISINE-_-Read and follow recipes in the target language.

DATING GAME–To meet a person of the opposite sex, read the computer dating company advertisement in the newspaper-in the new language, of course.

‘FRAIDY CAT-Make positive statements to yourself in order to feel more confident and be more willing to take risks.

GOOD OLD SHERLOCK-While reading the new language, constantly look for clues to the meaning.

GOSSIP-_While a friend is telling you some juicy gossip in the new language, listen carefully so you can get it right when you tell it to someone else.

GUESS WHAT-While listening to a politician’s TV speech in the new language, guess what the politician will say next.

HANDOUTS–Send off for free items advertised in target language magazines and newspapers.

HELP!-When you can’t seem to find the word to say in the new language, ask for help from somebody else.

HELP, I NEED YOU–Look for native speakers who can help you practice speaking the new language or who can explain things to you about the new culture.

HOLY, HOLY, HOLY~-Read a hymnbook, bible, prayerbook, etc., in the new language. See if there is anything similar to what you know from your own background. When you don’t understand something, guess.

HOW AM I DOING?_-Ask someone else for feedback on whether you have understood, said, or written something correctly in the new language.

HOW COME?-Try to figure out the reason for doing a certain language activity, so that you can prepare yourself better.

IT’S BEEN A HARD DAY-_Schedule a break from language learning when you are tired.

KEEP QUIET- Try to just listen and understand the new language for a while because your speaking skills aren’t so hot yet.

LISTENING IN-While the old lady ahead of you on the bus is chastising a young man in your new language, listen to their conversation to find out exactly what she’s saying to him.

LOOKING AHEAD_Use preview questions or other ways to look ahead at the new target language reading material, so that you can orient yourself.

MARKERS–In reading the new language, look for markers in the text (headings, subheadings, topic sentences) to give you clues about the meaning.

MIND IMAGES–When learning a list of words in the new language, create a picture in your head of the words and the relationships among them.

MOUTHING–When trying to learn the sounds of the new language, pay attention to how a native speaker shapes his or her mouth when talking; then you do the same while looking at a mirror.

MUSIC TIME–Listen to song lyrics in the target language and try to sing along and learn the words.

NITPICKING-While reading or listening to the target language, look for specific new words, forms, or pieces of information.

PEERS WITHOUT TEARS–Stop competing with your fellow students and learn to work together in learning the new language.

PENPALS-Meet a native speaker visiting from another country and then keep in touch with that person by writing in the new language after the person returns home.

PHYSICAL TRAINING–In class, follow commands of your teacher, such as “Stand up. Go to the blackboard. Pick up the chalk. Write your name.

PICTURES ON THE WALL–Go to the art museum, get a target language brochure about the paintings, read about them, go to see the ones you are most interested in, and write your impressions.

REWARDS–Having done very well on a language test, reward yourself with a special treat.

SCRABBLE- While playing a game of Scrabble in the target language, use a dictionary but no other aids.

SECRETS–Keep a journal of your language learning progress and write down new words and expressions.

SHORT-HAIRED (OR LONG-HAIRED) DICTIONARY-~-Find a pal who is a native speaker of the target language, and get your pal to explaito you the meanings of new words in the target language.

SNOOP AROUND-Make it a point to look around at signs, billboards, names of streets and buildings, headlines, magazine covers, and all the visual symbols of the new language and culture.

SOUNDS OF THE CITY–Listen to city sounds (announcements, discussions, speeches, mumblings, commercials, arguments), trying to figure out what people are saying in the new language.

SPREAD ‘EM OUT–Plan your sessions for reviewing new material in the target language so that the sessions are at first close together and then more widely spread out.

TAKING THE PULSE–Stop to determine whether you are feeling especially nervous before you go into language class.

TALKING TO YOURSELF–Tell yourself that you really can learn this language; bad experiences you might have had before don’t count anymore.

T-TIME-Take notes on what you hear or read in the new language by drawing a big T on the paper, writing the key idea or title at the top of the T, then listing details in the left column and examples in the right column.

WALKING AROUND TOWN-_To take a walk around the foreign city, get a guidebook and map in the new language, mark the best places, wander a bit, stop at a cafe, and meet some interesting people.

WATERY WORLD–Go down to the bay or the river, count the ships, read their names written in the new language, and ask people where the ships come from and where they are going next.

WHAT’S THE BIG IDEA?_-Find all sorts of ways to locate the main idea as you are reading a passage in the new language.

WRITER’S CRAMP-__To combat your “mental block” against writing a report in the new language, try to calm down and relax by means of music and breathing exercises.

Source Original [32].

Exercise 1.2. Strategy Search Game

Purpose

This game helps participants, either teachers or students, to determine which language learning strategies are embedded in, or suggested by, certain language tasks/situations. These are a little more complicated than the language activities in the preceding Embedded Strategies Game (Exercise 1.1 above). The Strategy Search Game is a process of matching langage tasks/situations with the names of relevant language learning strategies.

Like the Embedded Strategies Game, this exercise acquaints participants with the whole range of strategies. It can follow the Embedded Strategies Game as a more in-depth look at strategies, or it can be used instead of Embedded Strategies if participants already know something about strategies and their use.

Materials

Each participant gets a copy of the strategy system from this chapter (Figure 1.4) and a list of language tasks/situations (given below).

Time

This game, which lasts 1 to 2½ hours, can be spread over several class periods. Total time required depends on the number of tasks/situations used.

Instructions

Follow the instructions for the Embedded Strategies Game (Exercise 1.1) above. However, in place of “language activity” substitute “language task or situation.” A reminder: Again, leave plenty of time at the end for a discussion of what has been learned about language learning strategies!

Alternatives

1. Instead of giving each small group the complete list of all the tasks/situations from which to choose, let each small group pick a certain number of task/situation strips randomly from a well-shuffled set, so that no small group has the same task/situation strips as any other small group. Then each group must come up with all the relevant strategies for each of the task/situation strips it has randomly drawn. In Step 4 (explanation of strategy choices and determination of scores), small groups must read or describe each task/situation aloud to the whole group (so that everybody will know what the task or situation is). The explanation or justification operates as usual.

The rest of the game operates the same way as for the Embedded Strategies Game.

2. A small group makes up its own language tasks/situations, in addition to using the ones provided here within the time allowed. Strategies would be matched with the new tasks/situations in the same way as with the ones provided here.

3. Small groups act out their language tasks/situations. This works well with participants who are uninhibited or who know each other fairly well already.

Language Tasks/Situations for Strategy Search Game

(Cut into strips)

PRESENTING A PAPER: You are a Hungarian chemist in an industrial exchange program in the United States. Your task is to prepare a scientific paper to present orally to a group of your American colleagues. Your paper must be about 45 minutes long and must explain your research in some detail. Your oral English skills are not too good, but you know the technical vocabulary for your field and have a pretty fair grasp of English grammar. You are feeling nervous. Which language learning strategies do you need to use?

STRANGER: You are a 35-year-old refugee from Laos who has arrived in the United States. Your four children also escaped and are now with you.

Your husband has died, and you are living on welfare funds. You are almost illiterate in your own language, as well as in English. You had a short course in English at the refugee processing camp, but all of your English skills are very poor. You need to learn enough English so that you can go shopping by yourself, deal with the social worker and the welfare office, take care of your family, and become adjusted to a totally new cultural situation. Which language learning strategies do you need to use?

ESPIONAGE: You are a spy. Your job deals with overhearing and understanding target language conversations in person, over the phone, and on tape. Your task is to track a covert group which has been conducting international sabotage and to uncover secrets about this group’s activity. You have studied the language (called Unca) spoken by this group, but are not an expert; you need to work on your Unca listening skills-fast!

Which language learning strategies do you need to use?

CARTOON: You are an English-speaking high school student learning Italian. You have a good sense of humor and enjoy jokes and cartoons. You decide to buy an Italian cartoon book. It is about 100 pages long, full of cartoons. You want to read the book, understand the cartoons, and explain some of the cartoons to your friends who do not know Italian at all. Which language learning strategies do you need to use?

TRAVEL AGENT: It is September. You are a British college student just starting a year’s study in France. You want to go home for the Christmas holidays, and you’ve been told that you must book your tickets early or else you won’t be able to get reservations. You have to take a train from Aix to Paris, another train from Paris to Cherbourg, and a ferry from Cherbourg to Plymouth, across the English Channel. You don’t have much money, so you have to find the cheapest fare possible. Furthermore, you have some time constraints; you must return from England in time to see your girlfriend/boyfriend in France before the next semester starts. Your task is to talk to the travel agent, who does not understand English, and convey as much of this information as is relevant. Your French is rather limited, since you have not had much speaking practice yet. Which language learning strategies do you need to use?

ON TOUR: You are an Australian tourist in Greece. You have never been here before, and your study of Greek has been limited to skimming the Berlitz phrasebook. You managed to find your hotel with the help of a taxi driver. You went out for a walk on your own and got lost. Nobody around you seems to speak English. Your task is to find out where you are and get back to your hotel before it gets dark. You have 2 hours to do this.

You are getting a little worried! Which language learning strategies do you need to use?

CHURCH: You are a visitor from the United States in Germany. It is Friday, and you want to prepare yourself to go to church on Sunday to worship, participate in the service, and possibly meet some German people afterwards. You had 2 years of German study, but that was a very long time ago. Which language learning strategies do you need to use?

NEWSWORTHY: You are a French student learning English in France. You try to read the International Herald Tribune regularly so you can practice English, but you keep getting stuck on unfamiliar words. You use a dictionary to find out the meaning of every word you don’t know, but that slows you down too much, and not all the words are in the dictionary, anyway! It is very upsetting to have such difficulty, and you are about to give up. Which language learning strategies do you need to use?

VISITING GRANNY: You are in your 30s. Three months from now you will go to Warsaw to visit your grandmother, whom you have never met. You know from your parents that your grandmother speaks only a few words of English. You speak only a few words of Polish. You need to learn as much Polish as you can in the next 3 months, so you can find out all you can about your grandmother’s life, the family history, and your Polish relatives when you get to Poland. Which language learning strategies do you need to use?

CHILD OF THE MIDLANDS: You are a Pakistani child in a medium-size city in the English midlands. You live in a Pakistani enclave. Your parents, brothers and sisters, and friends do not speak English at home or in the neighborhood. But in school there are children from 15 different language and cultural groups, and English is the primary language of communication across these groups. You need to learn English to get along with the other children and to get good grades in school. Which language learning strategies do you need to use?

DOWN IN TEXAS: You are a 13-year-old Mexican student. Your family has just moved to Texas from a small town in Mexico. You are in an English-as-a-second-language program at school with lots of other Mexicans. They call it a “transitional” program, because it is supposed to prepare you for regular classes. You feel annoyed and upset because you don’t know much English, but you are highly motivated to learn. You want to be able to go to technical school or college after high school. You especially want to develop your language skills so that you will understand what your teacher says and so that you will be able to move more quickly into regular classes. Which language learning strategies do you need to use?

THE PLAY’S THE THING: You are an American high school student in your third year of French. Your task is to work with a small group to write and participate in a 30-minute play, all in French, about teenagers in France.

You don’t know much about teenagers in France, and you are terrified about speaking French in the play, but you are relieved that your friends are involved in it with you. Which language learning strategies do you need to use?

LEARNING RUSSIAN: You are a student of Russian in a university. You have not found any Russian natives in your town, except for your own professor. You realize that your speaking and listening skills are shaky,

though you are doing OK in reading and writing (for instance, you can Pick your way through a journal article or short story in Russian and can write a passable letter). Your task is to find ways to improve your speaking and listening skills so that you feel more confident. Which language learning strategies do you need to use?

FOREIGN POSTING: Your spouse has an offer of a high-level management post in a multinational firm that makes shoelaces in Costa Rica. You don’t know Spanish. You studied a little bit of French and German in school many years ago, but that does not seem to help much. You are very interested in other cultures. Your task is to learn enough Spanish to be able to get along socially and to help you take care of daily needs once you get to Costa Rica. Which language learning strategies do you need to use?

TROPICS: You are a new Peace Corps volunteer in the Philippines. You have been studying the local dialect that you will need to speak when you are posted in the north. You have completed about half of the language training so far, but you don’t feel much confidence in your skills. You know you will be working with village irrigation programs when you finish your language training, so you will need technical language about irrigation. But you also know that the Filipinos are very friendly and sociable, so you

think it will be important to develop social language. Your task is to figure out whether to concentrate your language training on developing technical, job-related language skills and/or social, non-job-related language skills, and then to make the most of language training so that you will be able to get along in a new and unfamiliar situation. Which language learning strategies do you need to use?

NEWSPAPER: You are a foreign language student in your second year of study. With your classmates, you are writing and publishing a newspaper in the target language. Your task is to use written pieces of target language information given to you and then to transform that information into articles–news, features, editorials–and format them into a readable news-paper. Which language learning strategies do you need to use?

READING A CHAPTER: You are a graduate student in nuclear physics. One of the latest and best books on the subject is in Russian and has not yet been translated into your own language. You and your friends have decided to read this book together by having each of you read and summarize a chapter. You are looking at your chapter. You don’t understand all of the text word for word, but you can see that it is fairly well organized and that it contains a lot of technical words you already know. Your task is to read and understand your chapter and provide a written summary of it to present to others. Which language learning strategies do you need to use?

TOOTHACHE: You are a student living in another country, whose language you speak only a little. One of your teeth fell out last night. It dropped on the floor, and you cannot find it. You don’t like going to the dentist, but you know you have to. You have a dictionary and a phrase-book. You must learn how to ask about finding a dentist and how to get the telephone number and address. Then you must be able to call the dentist’s office to explain the problem and set an appointment time. Once in the dentist’s office, you need to be able to cooperate with the dentist in having the problem treated, and arrange for payment. Which language learning strategies do you need to use?

ERRANDS: You are a Canadian student who has just come to Austria to learn German. You must run the following errands in town. First you have to go to the market to get some fruit and vegetables, then to the pharmacy for bandages and toothpaste, then to the bakery for bread, and then to the post office for stamps. You don’t yet have all the vocabulary you need for these errands, but you have about an hour to practice the language before you need to run the errands. Which language learning strategies do you need to use?

Chapter 2: Direct strategies for dealing with language

INTRODUCTION TO DIRECT STRATEGIES

Language learning strategies that directly involve the target language are called direct strategies. All direct strategies require mental processing of the language, but the three groups of direct strategies (memory, cognitive, and compensation) do this processing differently and for different purposes. Memory strategies, such as grouping or using imagery, have a highly specific function: helping students store and retrieve new information.

Cognitive strategies, such as summarizing or reasoning deductively, enable learners to understand and produce new language by many different means.

Compensation strategies, like guessing or using synonyms, allow learners to use the language despite their often large gaps in knowledge.

Pp38

MEMORY STRATEGIES

Po 39

Memory strategies reflect very simple principles, such as arranging things in order, making associations, and reviewing [2]. These principles all involve meaning. For the purpose of learning a new language, the arrangement and associations must be personally meaningful to the learner, and the material to be reviewed must have significance [3].

Pp40

Creating Mental Linkages

In this set are three strategies that form the cornerstone for the rest of the memory strategies: grouping, associating/elaborating, and using context.

1. Grouping

Classifying or reclassifying language material into meaningful units, either mentally or in writing, to make the material easier to remember by reducing the number of discrete elements. Groups can be based on type of word (e.g., all nouns or verbs), topic (e.g., words about weather), practical function (e.g., terms for things that make a car work), linguistic function (e.g., apology, request, demand), similarity (e.g., warm, hot, tepid, tropical), dissimilarity or opposition (e.g., friendly/unfriendly), the way one feels about something (e.g., like, dislike), and so on. The power of this strategy may be enhanced by labeling the groups, using acronyms to remember the groups, or using different colors to represent different groups.

Pp 41

DIRECT STRATEGIES FOR DEALING WITH LANGUAGE

2. Associating/Elaborating

Relating new language information to concepts already in memory, or relating one piece of information to another, to create associations in memory. These associations can be simple or complex, mundane or strange, but they must be meaningful to the learner. Associations can be between two things, such as bread and butter, or they can be in the form of a multipart “development,” such as school-book-paper-tree-country-earth 10). They can also be part of a network, such as a semantic map (see below).

3. Placing New Words into a Context

Placing a word or phrase in a meaningful sentence, conversation, or story in order to remember it. This strategy involves a form of associating/elaborating, in which the new information is linked with a context. This strategy is not the same as guessing intelligently, a set of compensation strategies (described later) which involve using all possible clues, including the context, to guess the meaning.

Applying Images and Sounds

Four strategies are included here: using imagery, using keywords, semantic mapping, and representing sounds in memory. These all involve remembering by means of visual images or sounds.

1. Using Imagery

Relating new language information to concepts in memory by means of meaningful visual imagery, either in the mind or in an actual drawing. The image can be a picture of an object, a set of locations for remembering a sequence of words or expressions, or a mental representation of the letters of a word. This strategy can be used to remember abstract words by associating such words with a visual symbol or a picture of a concrete object.

2. Semantic Mapping [11]

Making an arrangement of words into a picture, which has a key concept at the center or at the top, and related words and concepts linked with the key concept by means of lines or arrows. This strategy involves meaningful imagery, grouping, and associations; it visually shows how certain groups of words relate to each other.

3. Using Keywords (12]

Remembering a new word by using auditory and visual links. The first step is to identify a familiar word in one’s own language that sounds like the new word–this is the “auditory link.” The second step is to generate an image of some relationship between the new word and a familiar one–this is the “visual link.” Both links must be meaningful to the learner. For example, to learn the new French word potage (soup), the English speaker associates it with a pot and then pictures a pot full of potage. To use a keyword to remember something abstract, such as a name, associate it with a picture of something concrete that sounds like the new word. For example, Minnesota can be remembered by the image of a mini soda [13].

Po42

4. Representing Sounds in Memory

Remembering new language information according to its sound. This is a broad strategy that can use any number of techniques, all of which create a meaningful, sound-based association between the new material and already known material. For instance, you can (a) link a target language word with any other word (in any language) that sounds like the target language word, such as Russian brat (6par] (brother) and English brat (annoying person), (b) use phonetic spelling and/or accent marks, or (c) use rhymes to remember a word.

4. Representing Sounds in Memory

Employing Action

The two strategies in this set, using physical response or sensation and using mechanical tricks, both involve some kind of meaningful movement or action. These strategies will appeal to learners who enjoy the kinesthetic or tactile modes of learning.

DIRECT STRATEGIES FOR DEALING WITH LANGUAGE

1. Using Physical Response or Sensation [15]

Physically acting out a new expression (e.g., going to the door), or meaningfully relating a new expression to a physical feeling or sensation (e.g., warmth).

2. Using Mechanical Techniques

Using creative but tangible techniques, especially involving moving or changing something which is concrete, in order to remember new target language information. Examples are writing words on cards and moving cards from one stack to another when a word is learned, and putting different types of material in separate sections of a language learning notebook.

Pg 45

Practicing

Of the five practicing strategies, probably the most significant one
is practicing naturalistically.

Repeating
Saying or doing something over and over: listening to something several
times; rehearsing; imitating a native speaker.
Formally Practicing with Sounds and Writing Systems
Practicing sounds (pronunciation, intonation, register, etc.) in a variety
of ways, but not yet in naturalistic communicative practice; or practicing
the new writing system of the target language.
Recognizing and Using Formulas and Patterns
Being aware of and/or using routine formulas (single, unanalyzed units),
such as “‘Hello, how are you?”; and unanalyzed patterns (which have at
least one slot to be filled), such as, “It’s time to
Recombining
Combining known elements in new ways to produce a longer sequence, as in
linking one phrase with another in a whole sentence.
Practicing Naturalistically
Practicing the new language in natural, realistic settings, as in participating
in a conversation, reading a book or article, listening to a lecture, or
writing a letter in the new language.

Pg 46

Receiving and Sending Messages
Two strategies for receiving and sending messages are (a) getting
the idea quickly and (b) using resources for receiving and sending mes-
sages. The former uses two specific techniques for extracting ideas, while
the latter involves using a variety of resources for understanding or
producing meaning.

Getting the Idea Quickly
Using skimming to determine the main ideas or scanning to find specific details
of interest. This strategy helps learners understand rapidly what they
hear or read in the new language. Preview questions often assist.
Using Resources for Receiving and Sending Messages
Using print or nonprint resources to understand incoming messages or
produce outgoing messages.
Analyzing and Reasoning
This set of five strategies concerns logical analysis and reasoning as
applied to various target language skills. Often learners can use these
strategies to understand the meaning of a new expression or to create
a new expression.
Reasoning Deductively
Using general rules and applying them to new target language situations. This
is a top-down strategy leading from general to specific.
Analyzing Expressions
Determining the meaning of a new expression by breaking it down into parts;
using the meanings of various parts to understand the meaning of the
whole expression.
Analyzing Contrastively
Comparing elements (sounds, vocabulary, grammar) of the new language
with elements of one’s own language to determine similarities and dif-
ferences.
Translating
Converting a target language expression into the native language (at various
levels, from words and phrases all the way up to whole texts); or con-
verting the native language into the target language; using one language as
the basis for understanding or producing another.

Transferring
Directly applying knowledge of words, concepts, or structures from one language
to another in order to understand or produce an expression in the new
language.
Creating Structure for Input and Output
The following three strategies are ways to create structure, which
is necessary for both comprehension and production in the new lan-
guage.
Taking Notes
Writing down the main idea or specific points. This strategy can involve raw
notes, or it can comprise a more systematic form of note-taking such as
the shopping-list format, the T-formation, the semantic map, or the
standard outline form.
Summarizing
Making a summary or abstract of a longer passage.
Highlighting
Using a variety of emphasis techniques (such as underlining, starring, or
color-coding) to focus on important information in a passage.

Oh 49

Guessing Intelligently in Listening and Reading
The two strategies which contribute to guessing intelligently refer
to two different kinds of clues: linguistic and nonlinguistic [27].

Using Linguistic Clues
Seeking and using language-based clues in order to guess the meaning of
what is heard or read in the target language, in the absence of complete
knowledge of vocabulary, grammar, or other target language elements.
Language-based clues may come from aspects of the target language
that the learner already knows, from the learners’ own language, or
from another language. For instance, if the learner does not know the
expression association sans but lucratif (“nonprofit association,
‘” in French),
previous knowledge of certain words in English (association, lucrative)
and French (sans = without) would give clues to the meaning of the
unknown word, but (aim, goal), and of the whole expression.
Using Other Clues
Seeking and using clues that are not language-based in order to guess the
meaning of what is heard or read in the target language, in the absence
of complete knowledge of vocabulary, grammar, or other target language
elements. Nonlanguage clues may come from a wide variety of sources:
knowledge of context, situation, text structure, personal relationships,

50
LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES
topic, or “general world knowledge.” For example, if the learner does
not know what is meant by the words vends or à vendre in the French
newspaper, noticing that these words are used in the context of classified
ads, and that they are followed by a list of items and prices, provides
clues suggesting that these terms probably refer to selling.

Overcoming Limitations in Speaking and Writing
Eight strategies are used for overcoming limitations in speaking and
writing. Some of these are dedicated solely to speaking, but some can
be used for writing, as well.

Switching to the Mother Tongue
Using the mother tongue for an expression without translating it, as in Ich
bin eine girl. This strategy may also include adding word endings from
the new language onto words from the mother tongue.
Getting Help
Asking someone for help by hesitating or explicitly asking for the person
to provide the missing expression in the target language.
Using Mime or Gesture
Using physical motion, such as mime or gesture, in place of an expression
to indicate the meaning.
Avoiding Communication Partially or Totally
Partially or totally avoiding communication when difficulties are anticipated.
This strategy may involve avoiding communication in general, avoiding
certain topics, avoiding specific expressions, or abandoning communi-
cation in mid-utterance.
Selecting the Topic
Choosing the topic of conversation in order to direct the communication to
one’s own interests and make sure the topic is one in which the learner
has sufficient vocabulary and grammar to converse.
Adjusting or Approximating the Message
Altering the message by omitting some items of information, making ideas
simpler or less precise, or saying something slightly different that means
almost the same thing, such as saying pencil for pen.
Coining Words
Making up new words to communicate the desired idea, such as paper-
holder for notebook.

Chapter 3

Pg 69

Applying can genitive strategies to the four language skills

Four sets of cognitive strategies are practicing, receiving, and sending messages, analysing and reasoning, and creating structure for input and output.

Practicing
The first and perhaps most important set of cognitive strategies, prac-
ticing, contains five strategies: repeating, formally practicing with sounds
and writing systems, recognizing and using formulas and patterns, recom-
bining, and practicing naturalistically.
Repeating @ Although the strategy of repeating might not at first
sound particularly creative, important, or meaningful, it can be used in
highly innovative ways, is actually essential for all four language skills,
and virtually always includes some degree of meaningful understanding
[7.
One use of this strategy is repeatedly listening to native speakers of
the new language on a tape or record, with or without silent rehearsal
(repeating the words to oneself mentally). Here are some examples. Milton
listens to the weather report in French every day while eating breakfast.
He is now very familiar with weather-related terms such as le soleil (sun),
chaud (hot), froid (cold), and il fait beau (the weather is fine). Lyle, who is
learning Russian, repeatedly plays a song, Moskouskiye Vechera [MockOBCKHE
Bevepa] (“Moscow Evenings”) and listens to the Russian words, trying to
understand them while silently rehearsing them.
The strategy of repeating might mean reading a passage more than
once to understand it more completely. A profitable technique is to read
a passage several times, each time for different purposes: for example, to
get the general drift or the main ideas, to predict, to read for detail, to
write down questions, and so on. The learner might also take notes about
a reading passage and then review them several times.

Oh 71

Formally Practicing with Sounds and Writing Systems I ® W In lis-
tening, this strategy is often focused on perception of sounds (pronunci-
ation and intonation) rather than on comprehension of meaning [10]. In
listening perception exercises (as opposed to listening comprehension exer-
cises), it is essential to keep visual and contextual clues to a minimum;
therefore, recordings, not live speech, are recommended for listening
perception [11].

Recognizing and Using Formulas and Patterns @ Recognizing and using
routine formulas and patterns in the target language greatly enhance the
learner’s comprehension and production. Formulas are unanalyzed expres-
sions, while patterns have at least one slot that can be filled with an alter-
native word. Teach students such expressions as whole chunks early in
their language learning process. These routines will help build self-confi-
dence, increase understanding, and enhance fluency.
Here are some examples of common formulas:
Hello.
Good-bye.
How are you?

Pg 84

Translating (A) Translating can be a helpful strategy early in language
learning, as long as it is used with care. It allows learners to use their own
language as the basis for understanding what they hear or read in the new
language. It also helps learners produce the new language in speech or
writing. However, word-for-word (verbatim) translation, though a frequent

occurrence among beginners, can become a crutch or provide the wrong
interpretation of target language material. Furthermore, translating can
sometimes slow learners down considerably, forcing them to go back and
forth constantly between languages.

Oh 86

Creating Structure for Input and Output

Taking Notes LRW This is a very important strategy for listening
and reading, but learners generally are not taught to use it well, if at all.
The focus of taking notes should be on understanding, not writing. Note-
taking is often thought of as an advanced tool, to be used at high levels
of proficiency-_-such as when listening to lectures. However, developing
note-taking skills can begin at very early stages of learning. Key points can
be written in the learners’ own language at first. Depending on the purpose,
later note-taking can be in the target language, thus involving writing
practice. Or you can also allow a mixture of the target language and the
learners’ own language, with known vocabulary words written in the target
language and the rest in the native language.
There are many different ways to take notes, the simplest and most
common form being that of raw notes, which are unstructured and un-
transformed [27]. For raw notes to become useful, learners need to go back
immediately (before they forget what was said) and organize the notes
using a different system. A better way is to use the’
“shopping list” or T-

APPLYING DIRECT STRATEGIES TO THE FOUR LANGUAGE SKILLS
87
formation as the very first step, omitting the raw notes. The advantage of
using one of these formats initially is that they help learners organize what
they hear while they are hearing it, thus increasing the original under-
standing and the ability to integrate new information with old.
If your students ordinarily take notes word for word, as in a dictation
exercise, give them practice in listening for and taking notes on only the
key points of information. After they are able to note the main points, heip
them to develop their skill in noting details. Use graphics and visuals
wherever possible to highlight the main ideas as your students take notes.
Teach your students to use various kinds of note-taking formats and then
to choose the ones they like the best.
The shopping list format is extremely simple, but it does impose some
sort of order and organization on the spoken material. It involves writing
down information in clusters or sets that have some internal consistency
or meaning. An example of the shopping list format is shown in Figure 3.8.
The T-formation is shown in Figure 3.9 using the same language ma-
trial as for the shopping list. This format is similar in intent to the shopping
list format, but it allows learners to use the space on the paper in a more
effective way. First draw a large T on a piece of paper, taking up the whole
sheet. Then write the main theme or title on the top line (the crossbar of
the T). On the left side of the vertical line, write the basic categories or
topics that have been discussed; on the right side of the vertical line, write
details, specific examples, follow-up questions, or comments.
A semantic map is also a useful note-taking format, requiring learners
to indicate the main word or idea and to link this with clusters of related
words or ideas by means of lines or arrows; see examples of this format
under memory strategies earlier in this chapter. Another useful form for
notes is the tree diagram, sometimes transformed into a flow chart by
means of arrows, diamonds, circles, and so forth. Examples of the tree
diagram format are found throughout this book [28]. In addition, the stan-
dard outline form (using Roman numerals, letters, etc.) deserves special
mention as a note-taking format. This outline structure, shown in Figure
3.10, can be extended to as many levels of detail as learners might ever

Need. Just add more symbols, such as (a), (b), (;), (ii), or (ili), as needed.
An alternative numbering system involves decimals (e.g., 1, 1.1). Well-
structured reading passages end themselves to the standard outline form,
one version of which is shown in Figure 3.10.
Provide exercises that require your students to take notes on their
listening and reading (including the instructions you give them in class).
Allow students to take notes either in their own language or the target
language at first, but encourage them to move toward taking notes mostly
or solely in the target language if possible.
Note-taking techniques can be integrated with regular language activ-
ities and materials as a natural element in language learning. A metacog
nitive strategy closely associated with note-taking is organizing, which
includes keeping a notebook for gathering new language information and
for tracking progress (see Chapters 4 and 5). Any notes should be kept
neatly and organized in some fashion; a loose-leaf notebook is perhaps the
best way. For students who are writing substantial pieces in the target
language, it is helpful to jot down ideas as soon as they pop into the head.
Therefore, the notebook should be kept close at hand at all times.
Summarizing O ® W Another strategy that helps learners structure
ew input and show they understand is summarizing–that is, making a
ondensed, shorter version of the original passage. Writing a summary can
e more challenging (and sometimes more useful) than taking notes, be-
use it often requires greater condensation of thought.
At the early stages of language learning, summarizing can be as simple
just giving a title to what has been heard or read; the title functions as
kind of summary of the story or passage.

Pg 90

APPLYING COMPENSATION STRATEGIES TO THE
FOUR LANGUAGE SKILLS
The compensation strategies, displayed in Figure 3.11, help learners
to overcome knowledge limitations in all four skills. For beginning and
intermediate language learners, these strategies may be among the most
important. Compensation strategies are also useful for more expert lan-
guage users, who occasionally do not know an expression, who fail to hear
something clearly, or who are faced with a situation in which the meaning
is only implicit or intentionally vague.
Guessing Intelligently in Listening and Reading
Guessing is essential for listening and reading. It helps learners let go
of the belief that they have to recognize and understand every single word
before they can comprehend the overall meaning. Learners can actually
understand a lot of language through systematic guessing, without nec-
essarily comprehending all the details. Two compensation strategies rel-
evant to listening and reading involve using linguistic clues and other clues.

Pg 94

How to Promote Guessing
Build guessing skills systematically by leading students step by step
through different stages of guessing. Start with global comprehension. To
stimulate guessing, ask students some preview questions before they start
reading or listening, or interrupt a story in the middle to ask for predictions
about what will happen, or give just the ending and ask for guesses about
the beginning. Ask which picture corresponds to what they are hearing or
reading. Alternatively, give students a sentence in the new language and
ask them to complete it [32]. Whenever you use activities like these, be
sure to give students feedback immediately (or soon) about the correctness
or appropriateness of their answers. Discuss the source of the guesses, so
that students can learn from each other and so you can know whether
learners are using all possible sources of clues.
The guessing strategies relate to listening and reading. The next group
of compensation strategies is tailored for speaking and writing.
Overcoming Limitations in Speaking and Writing
All the compensation strategies for speaking and writing contribute to
learning by allowing learners to stay in conversations or keep writing long
enough to get sustained practice. Some of these strategies also provide
new knowledge in a more obvious way (e.g., getting help).
Switching to the Mother Tongue @ This strategy, sometimes technically
called “code switching,” is used for speaking and involves using the mother
tongue for an expression without translating it. Here are some examplesOh

of this strategy. Geraldo, a Spanish speaker learning English, uses balón
for balloon, and tirtil for caterpillar: Trudy, an English-speaking student of
French, says, Je suis dans la wrong maison (I’m in the wrong house), inserting
“wrong” when the French word is unknown. Leslie, an English speaker
learning French, states, Je ne pas go to school, thus switching back to English
in midstream. June, another learner of French, uses the expression leliure
de Paul’s (Paul’s book), including the non-French word Paul’s. And Henri,
a French speaker learning English, declares, I want a couteau, a knife.
Creatively using this strategy, Norman adds word endings from the
target language onto words from the mother tongue, as in Wir sind Soldieren
(We are soldiers, using the English word soldier with the German -en tacked
on). An English speaker, Nicki, wants to describe a clock over the fireplace,
but says instead Il y a une cloche sur la cheminée (there’s a bell over the
fireplace). Of course, these two examples might be misunderstood by native
speakers of the new language.p

Phew 97

Coining Words @ W This simple strategy means making up new words
to communicate a concept for which the learner does not have the right
vocabulary. For instance, Zoltan might say airball to mean balloon. A German
learner of English, Gottfried, does not know the expression bedside table
and therefore coins the expression night table, a direct translation of the
German Nachttisch. (Note the use of the strategy of translating in the service
of coining words during a conversation.) Lucille, an English-speaking learner
of German, does not know how to say dishwasher in German and conse-
quently makes up the word Abwaschmaschine, a combination of abwaschen
(to wash up) and Maschine (machine). Finally, Omar, a learner of English,
is not familar with the word bucket and therefore coins water-holder.
When there is no time to look up the correct word, or when the
dictionary fails them, writers sometimes make up their own words to get
the meaning across. For example, Stavros uses the term tooth doctor instead
of dentist when writing a note to indicate where he is going this afternoon.

Pg 101

APPLYING DIRECT STRATEGIES TO THE FOUR LANGUAGE SKILLS
Exercise 3.1. Memory Practice
Purpose
This exercise helps learners to distribute or space their memory practice
with new vocabulary words, using structured review and other memory
strategies.
Materials
Large sheet of paper for the list.
Time
Although the exercise takes 30 to 50 minutes, you might also hold
short sessions periodically to add to the list later.
Instructions
Ask your students to brainstorm about all the memory strategies they
now use, or have used, to learn a language. Make the list as long as possible.
Then ask the students to tell which of these were useful and which were
not, and have them explain why. Put a star (*) beside those which students
describe as effective. Add to the list periodically. (If students cannot think
of the memory strategies they use, do a few language learning tasks in
class, then ask your students to list all the memory strategies they used
for those tasks and to indicate which ones they felt were the most helpful.)
Then explain some of the principles of remembering. For instance,
describe in your own words the need for structured reviewing at increasing
intervals, and give or show them a copy of Figure 3.6. Ask them to learn
specific vocabulary for an upcoming lesson by using this strategy. Ask
them to report back to the class on the effects.
During a vocabulary learning task in class, give your students practice
in making associations, using imagery, and putting new words into the context
of a sentence. To do this, ask students to work in small groups and share
their associations, images, or contexts (sentences) aloud as they work on
learning new expressions.
Source Original.

Pg 104

Exercise 3.4. Find the Odd Word
Purpose
This activity is an extension of the grouping exercises. It requires learn-
ers to find the word that does not fit into the groups. This provides more
complex grouping practice, helps in discrimination skills, and helps in
remembering new words.
Materials
Word lists, instruction sheet.
Time
The exercise takes 15 minutes, more if alternatives are used.
Instructions
Give your students the word lists and instructions below.
Which word does not belong in each of the four lists below? Circle
the
“odd” word in the cluster and explain why you chose it.

Alternatives

Some highly creative students always seem to find relationships
among almost any set of words, and they are able to give logical reasons,
too! If you are dealing with such students, run the exercise as above. Then
run it a second time, this time asking learners to think of reasons why the
four words in each group do fit together.
If learners are more advanced, they can do the exercise, including
all discussion, entirely in the target language.
Source Omaggio (1981, p. 27) for basic exercise. Alternatives are original

Pg 106

Exercise 3.6 Finding your way

Purpose
This exercise is a listening comprehension task involving students in
marking a route on a map according to spoken directions. It requires a
combination of many strategies, such as direct strategies like practicing
naturalistically, guessing, and using imagery and indirect strategies like
paying attention.

Materials
Map photocopied for each student.
Time
This will take 20 minutes.Of

Of 107

Instructions
Get a clear road map of an interesting area (see examples in Figures
3.12 and 3.13). Make copies for all students and yourself. On your own
copy, sketch the route you want students to go. Then, without showing
your copy to the students, describe in words where to go, adding comments
on the scenery and landmarks, discussing the kinds of people you will
meet (e.g., the butcher, the minister, the teacher), and mentioning reasons
for visiting certain places. These hints will help students as they mark on
their map the route you are describing.
Source Original instructions; however, such activities are typically found
in good listening comprehension books, such as Ur (1984).

Pg 135

Chapter 4: Indirect Strategies for General Management of Learning

Meta cognitive Strategies

Metacognitive strategies are essential for successful language learning.
Language learners are often overwhelmed by too much
‘”‘newness”_-un-
familiar vocabulary, confusing rules, different writing systems, seemingly
inexplicable social customs, and (in enlightened language classes) nontra-
ditional instructional approaches. With all this novelty, many learners lose
their focus, which can only be regained by the conscious use of metacog-
nitive strategies such as paying attention and overviewing/linking with
already familiar material.

Pg 138

Centering Your Learning
This set of three strategies helps learners to converge their attention
and energies on certain language tasks, activities, skills, or materials.
Use of these strategies provides a focus for language learning.

Overviewing and Linking with Already Known Material
Overviewing comprehensively a key concept, principle, or set of materials in an
upcoming language activity and associating it with what is already known.
This strategy can be accomplished in many different ways, but it is often
helpful to follow three steps: learning why the activity is being done,
building the needed vocabulary, and making the associations (4].
Paying Attention
Deciding in advance to pay attention in general to a language learning task
and to ignore distractors (by directed attention), and/or to pay attention to
specific aspects of the language or to situational details (by selective atten-
tion).
Delaying Speech Production to Focus on Listening
Deciding in advance to delay speech production in the new language either
totally or partially, until listening comprehension skills are better de-
veloped. Some language theorists encourage a ” silent period” of delayed
speech as part of the curriculum, but there is debate as to whether all
students require this [5].

Pg 143

Lowering Your Anxiety
Three anxiety-reducing strategies are listed here. Each has a physical
component and a mental component.

Using Progressive Relaxation, Deep Breathing, or Meditation
Using the technique of alternately tensing and relaxing all of the major
muscle groups in the body, as well as the muscles in the neck and face,
in order to relax; or the technique of breathing deeply from the diaphragm;
or the technique of meditating by focusing on a mental image or sound.
Using Music
Listening to soothing music, such as a classical concert, as a way to relax.
Using Laughter
Using laughter to relax by watching a funny movie, reading a humorous
book, listening to jokes, and so on.

Pg 51Cha

Chapter 5: applying indirect strategies to the four language skills

By definition, direct strategies involve
the new language directly, whereas indirect strategies provide indirect sup-
port for language learning through focusing, planning, evaluating, seeking
opportunities, controlling anxiety, increasing cooperation and empathy,
and other means.

Pg 155

Delaying Speech Production to Focus on Listening ® This strategy
relates to listening and speaking rather than reading and writing. You do
not have to teach or encourage this strategy, because many learners do it
automatically by postponing their speaking in the target language for hours,
days, weeks, or possibly even months. This phenomenon is often viewed
as a way of focusing on listening comprehension before students feel com-
fortable enough to speak. The speech delay may be total (no target language
speech) or partial (for instance, saying only stock phrases but no creative
sentences). The delay occurs because listening is more rapidly developed
than speaking, and because speaking seems more threatening to many
students. Some instructional theorists have stressed the importance of al-
lowing a
“silent period” for all learners, and various language teaching
methods reflect this emphasis, but research evidence concerning the sig-
nificance and optimal length of the silent period is mixed [3]. Help build
solid listening comprehension skills, and encourage students to speak as
soon as they are ready, without any externally imposed delay.

Pg 156

Arranging and Planning Your Learning
The six stratepies for arranging and planning are helpful in developing
all language skills. These concern discovering the nature of language learn-
ing, organizing to learn, establishing aims, considering task purposes, plan-
ning for tasks, and looking for chances to practice.
Finding Out About Language Learning (@ This strategy means uncov-
ering what is involved in language learning. Learners often do not know
much about the mechanics of language learning, although such knowledge
would make them more effective learners. Books about language learning
are a good source of information [4]. Help your students by allowing them
to talk about their language learning problems, ask questions, and share
ideas with each other about effective strategies they have tried. Taking
class time to talk about the learning process will reap rewards for the
students [5). All four skills are aided by this strategy, especially if time is
allotted to talk about special problems in each of the skills.
Organizing @ This strategy includes a variety of tools, such as creating
the best possible physical environment, scheduling well, and keeping a
language learning notebook. First, having the right physical environment
is important for every language skill. Listening and reading especially re-
quire a comfortable, peaceful setting without too much background noise.
Help establish a good classroom environment, and encourage your stu-
dents to create an appropriate setting for learning at home.
Second, assist your students in developing practical weekly schedules
for language learning, with plenty of time devoted to outside-of-class prac-
tice in the language skills which are most needed. Note that certain skills
like reading and writing are, for many students, best developed with un-
broken stretches of time. Relaxation time should be built into the schedule,
too, because students can become exhausted with too much work, leading
to lowered performance.
Finally, a language learning notebook is an excellent organizational
aid to learners. The notebook is useful for writing down new target lan-
guage expressions or structures and the contexts in which they were en-
countered, class assignments, goals and objectives, strategies which work
well, things to remember, and so on. Encourage your students to obtain
a language learning notebook and organize it for the best use.

Pg 157

APPLYING INDIRECT STRATEGIES TO THE FOUR LANGUAGE SKILLS
157
Setting Goals and Objectives @ Goals and objectives are expressions
of students’ aims for language learning. Students without aims are like
boats without rudders; they do not know where they are going, so they
might never get there! Goals and objectives should be noted in the language
learning notebook, along with deadlines for accomplishing them and an
indication as to whether those deadlines were met. Goals are generally
considered to be long-range aims referring to the outcome of many months
or even years. Objectives are short-term aims for hours, days, or weeks.
Aid your students in determining goals and objectives in each of the skill
areas, realizing that different students will have different aims. In the
examples below, some of the aims reflect full-blown communicative com-
petence, while others reflect relatively minimal skill development.
Some possible goals for listening might be to attain an advanced lis-
tening proficiency rating, to be an effective listener in occasional conver-
sations with native speakers, to understand the language well enough for
foreign travel, or to be able to hold a job that depends on skilled, in-depth
listening. Examples of listening objectives might be as follows. Betty will
tune in to the Spanish-language news this evening and will try to under-
stand at least half of it. Bill will visit his French-speaking uncle twice this
week and work to improve his listening comprehension. Alden plans to
listen to a Chinese tape on the way to work daily for the next 3 weeks.
Reading goals might be to become proficient enough to read profes-
sional materials in a technical area, to read magazines or newspapers for
pleasure, to read short stories with ease, to understand signposts in the
foreign country, to reach a superior reading proficiency level, or to pass
the reading exam required for graduate school entrance. Reading objectives
might look like these. Johann decides to master the Cyrillic alphabet by
Friday, so he can proceed with learning simple Russian words. Kathleen
wants to learn a set of vocabulary words this afternoon, so it will be easier
for her to read the Italian story tonight. Muriel, who is learning French,
plans to finish the Camus novel by the end of the month.
Speaking goals might be to develop sufficient speaking skill to survive
in a second language environment, to communicate occasionally with
acquaintances who speak the target language, to get a job requiring daily
spoken communication in the language, to negotiate foreign travel ar-
rangements, and the like. Sample speaking objectives might be as follows,
Sonya decides to master the common German greetings before the next
dass meets, Manning plans to practice the Russian past tense verb endings
this week until he can say them perfectly. Alfonso will speak English tor
halfan hour with his teacher and will apply some of the new conversation
management techniques he has just learned.
„foals for writing might ineiude developing enough writing skill to
‘univain correspondence with foreientiends, to succeed in school af
university courses conducted entirely; in the target language, to write ac

ceptable business letters, to write scientific articles publishable in inter-
national journals, or to pass the language course. Writing objectives might
be like the following. Marianne wants to finish her essay within the next
few days. Helmuth wants to share the first draft of his autobiography with
Wilhelm by the following Tuesday. Edward hopes to meet his early and
intermediate writing deadlines, so that he can avoid a “crash” writing effort
at the end.

Pg 177

Exercise 5.2. Create a Language Learning Notebook
Purpose
This exercise helps learners create a notebook that will help them
throughout their language learning.
Materials
Notebook, dividers.
Time
It will take 1 hour to consider contents and make divisions. Time
needed for using the notebook is up to the learner!
Instructions
Tell your students the following in your own words: If you don’t
already have one, create a language learning notebook. This will help you
organize your language learning. Your notebook can be used for any of
the following purposes, or other purposes that you might think of:
To record your goals and objectives for learning the language
To write down assignments given by the instructor
To keep a list of new words or expressions you have learned or want
to learn
To write down words you have heard or read that you want to ask
someone about or look up in the dictionary
To write down grammar rules you have learned or figured out in some
way
To keep notes about conversations you have had in the language
To summarize what you read in the new language
To keep a record of errors you want to work on, and your hunches
about why you might have made those errors

178
LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES
To comment on strategies you have used successfully or unsuccessfully
To record the amount of time you spend each week studying or using
the target language
Make your notebook as simple or detailed as you want. The structure
of your notebook depends on your learning style, your personality, and
your purposes for using the notebook. If you want to color-code the sections
of the notebook, go ahead. Write in your language learning notebook every
day or as often as possible. Use it as a good friend in the language learning
process. It is one of the best ways to get organized and to manage your
learning.

Exercise 5.3. Set Your Goals and Objectives
Purpose
This exercise helps learners set their goals and objectives.
Materials
Copy of questionnaire below, additional paper.
Time
Setting long-term goals: 15 minutes to 1 hour. Setting short-term ob-
jectives: should be done periodically; amount of time varies.
instructions
Tell your students the following in your own words: Let’s work on
setting goals and objectives for language learning. Your goals and objectives
may differ from those of your friends in the class, but that is not important.
What is important is that you become clear about why you are learning
the language and what you want to get from language learning. To do
this, answer the questions in Table 5.3.
Alternative
Learners can work in pairs on this. Or they can work individually and
then compare their goals and objectives with those of others.

Pg 193

Chapter 6: language learning strategy assessment and training

Pg 201

The Scope of Strategy Training
201
The best strategy training not only teaches language learning strategies
but also deals with feelings and beliefs about taking on more responsibility
and about the role change implied by the use of learning strategies. Unless
learners alter some of their old beliefs about learning, they will not be able
to take advantage of the strategies they acquire in strategy training (15).
In addition, strategy training can cover more general aspects of language
learning, such as the kinds of language functions used inside and outside
the classroom, significance of group work and individual efforts in language
learning, trade-offs between accuracy and fluency, fear of mistakes, learn-
ing versus acquisition, and ways in which language learning differs from
learning other subjects [16].
The Need for Strategy Training
Learners need to learn how to learn, and teachers need to learn how
to facilitate the process. Although learning is certainly part of the human
condition, conscious skill in self-directed learning and in strategy use must
be sharpened through training [17]. Strategy training is especially necessary
in the area of second and foreign languages. Language learning requires
active self-direction on the part of learners; they cannot be spoon-fed if
they desire and expect to reach an acceptable level of communicative com-
petence.
Many language teachers advocate explicit training of language learners
in the “how to” of language study. The general goals of such training are
to help make language learning more meaningful, to encourage a collab-
orative spirit between learner and teacher, to learn about options for lan-
guage learning, and to learn and practice strategies that facilitate self-
reliance (18]. Strategy training should not be abstract and theoretical but
should be highly practical and useful for students.
No one knows everything about how people learn languages, but there
is strong support for sharing, through strategy training, what we do know.
Research shows us that learners who receive strategy training generally
learn better than those who do not, and that certain techniques for such
training are more beneficial than others.

Pg 213

Chapter 7: Networking at home and abroad

Alison