Structured literacy: An approach to support ākonga who present with dyslexic tendencies in Māori-medium education to learn to read, write and spell in te reo Māori

Kairaranga, 2022, 23(1), 74-105. Weaving educational threads. Weaving educational practice.

Shelley Manuel

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Structured literacy is an umbrella term used by the International Dyslexia Association (IDA, 2016, 2018). It unifies all the evidence-based literacy elements and teaching principles based on culminating research available that gets the majority of ākonga reading, writing and spelling in the most effective way. It is a crucial approach for mokopuna with learning differences such as dyslexia (IDA 2016, 2018; Spear-Swerling, 2019; TKI, 2020a; Young, 2020).

Te reo Māori is a transparent phonetic language (Harlow, 2001) with a consistent alphabetic orthography of 15 distinct sounds1 or 20 sounds when considering the long vowel sounds separately from the short vowel sounds. The first attempts in mapping this oral language into a printed code began in the 1800s (Harlow, 2007).

Studies have found that reading proceeds more quickly in languages with orthographies with a written code that is transparent (Aro & Wimmer, 2003; Landerl, 2000; Paulesu et al., 2000; Seymour et al., 2003, cited in Krägeloh & Neha, 2010). This may explain why learning te reo Māori letter-sound relationships have been relatively easy to learn and generally mastered by ākonga (McDowall et al., 2005; Rau et al., 1998).

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Science of reading
The science of reading creates an effective pathway for learners. It is a convergence of over 40 years of research from linguists, psychologists (development and neurocognitive) and education intervention researchers from around the world, who revealed interdisciplinary insights into how we learn to read and what kind of instruction works best for most ākonga (Moats, 2019; Seidenberg, 2017).

Structured literacy is informed by the science of reading. It identifies key elements of what we need to learn to read, write and spell: phonological/phonemic awareness (phonology – speech sounds of language); alphabetic-code/phonics (orthography – sound to symbol and syllable types), including spelling and writing (e.g. handwriting); fluency; vocabulary (morphology); comprehension (syntax and semantics) (IDA, 2016, 2018; NRP, 2000; Stewart, 2019; TKI 2020a); oral language (listening and speaking); and written expression4 (Stewart, 2019). It also identifies how to teach these elements through instructional principles that are diagnostic, explicit, systematic and cumulative (IDA 2016, 2018; Stewart, 2019; TKI, 2020a). It follows a structured simple to complex logical progression known as a scope (what to teach) and sequence (the order to teach it in), uses a multimodal approach and includes monitoring and ongoing review to learning the written code of the language one speaks (Chapman et al., 2018; IDA, 2016, 2018, 2020; MoE, 2020b; NRP, 2000, Stewart, 2019; TKI, 2020a).

Practitioner knowledge and understanding of effective reading instruction is paramount because “human beings were never born to read” (Wolf, 2018, p. 2). Furthermore Dehaene (2009, cited in Stewart, 2019, p. 3), a cognitive neuroscientist, states that “It simply is not true that there are hundreds of ways to learn to read. … When it comes to reading, all [children] have roughly the same brain that imposes the same constraints and the same learning sequence”.

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Recognising dyslexic tendencies

the simple view of reading (Farrell et al., 2019; Gough & Tumner, 1986; Rose, 2015; Wooldridge, 2017) is a model that kaiako could use to recognise ākonga literacy needs. It shows that reading comprehension is the combination of decoding and language comprehension. In order to understand what you read you need to be able to process words8 and understand the language you hear (oral language comprehension). This means we need both in order to have the ability to understand what we read. The brain mechanisms for reading are the same around the world and good predictors of learning to read include phonics9 (decoding) and vocabulary (language comprehension) in all languages (Dehaene, 2013).

Bilingual learners
There is no denying that learning to read a language that has a similar or different orthography will be time-consuming and difficult for tamariki with dyslexia (Ho et al., 2005). However, there is accumulating evidence suggesting that bilingual dyslexic learners of two alphabetic languages could strengthen the part of their brain that processes sounds to print (Paulesu et al., 2000) by learning a phonetic transparent orthography (e.g. te reo Māori). This improves their phonetic reading skills in their opaque orthography (e.g. English). These skills have shown to be better compared to their monolingual English peers revealing bilingual exposure has a positive impact on ākonga phonological reading skills (Siegel, 2016).
Bilingual dyslexics can, and eventually do, form language-specific literacy skills in both of their languages (Klein & Doctor, 2003). Struggling readers educated in a second language can benefit from the same kinds of support (e.g. structured literacy) used to help ākonga who are struggling monolingual readers. It is important to include suitable adaptations as needed, such as “lots of scaffolding, support for vocabulary development, and use culturally familiar materials at an appropriate linguistic level” (Grosjean, 2019, para. 19).

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… bilingual tamariki who have a reading problem in only one of their languages do not have dyslexia. This difficulty with reading in one language could be due to other factors such as motivation, learning environment, boredom, quality of instruction, vision impairments and health (Genesse, 2019, cited in Grosjean, 2019).

Studies have found that bilingual tamariki with dyslexia show similar phonological linguistic difficulties in both of their alphabetic orthographic languages (Ijalba & Bustos, 2017; Klein & Doctor, 2003) that impedes their ability to read and write (Geva et al., 2000). The research suggests that the brain development and weaknesses in people with dyslexia are similar no matter what language they speak. However the challenges may not look the same in each language.

Transparent languages (te reo Māori) are easier to learn than opaque languages (English) and a difficulty that ākonga with dyslexia may have in their transparent orthography may appear a little different at first compared to opaque languages.

Rau et al. (2020) noticed ākonga are usually able to accurately decode, but displayed difficulties with slow and laborious reading of texts in te reo Māori, often with the syllabification of words (blending and fluency). These studies align with the findings of Wolf and Stoodley (2007), that some dyslexic tamariki can have perfectly represented phonemes, but cannot quickly connect with letters because of a processing speed10 problem.

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Literacy approaches
Research has indicated that structured literacy is the best approach for dyslexic learners to learn to read, spell and write because it “directly addresses their core weaknesses in phonological skills, decoding, and spelling” (Moats, 2017, cited in Spear-Swerling, 2019, p. 203). Studies have found that ākonga receiving instruction using this approach outperformed their peers (Chapman et al., 2018; Robinson et al., 2016) because it offers more effective and highly explicit ways to teach them (dyslexic or at risk) within classroom literacy instruction when compared to typical literacy instructional practices (Spear-Swerling, 2019). In fact if you take a step back in time, Center and Freeman (1996) suggested implementing a structured literacy approach class-wide (tier 1) can produce similar results to costly 1-1 interventions for all ākonga.

Another approach that is commonly used in English-medium settings and in some respects are similar in Māori-medium kura (Bishop et al., 2001; Rau, 1998) is the whole language (meaning focus) and balanced literacy approach (meaning focus with some phonics). Core instruction is focused on guided/shared reading where ākonga are encouraged to use word analogies, context and pictures to guess words. Although some form of phonics, decoding and spelling may be taught in word work lessons, the skills typically are rarely taught systematically (Spear-Swerling, 2019). This approach does not help to develop successful readers and isn’t effective for students who are dyslexic because it doesn’t focus on the skills needed to process (IDA, 2018) and orthographically map words (Kilpatrick, 2020).

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Literacy assessments

A wide range of assessments were being used in the participants’ kura, predominantly administered in te reo Māori. Some were founded in overall teacher judgements (OTJs) based on observations of ākonga work. The main formalised literacy assessments kaiako used were running records, oral language assessments, writing assessment (manu tuhituhi), 10×10 writing sample, 6 year net (mātai mātātupu), and haurapa probe (reading comprehension assessments). However, there was no specific mention of how kaiako assess the early foundational reading skills (phonological/phonemic awareness – hearing sounds away from print) and fluency, which are key elements of reading success (MoE, 2020b; NRP, 2000; Rose, 2009).

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Literacy approach and instruction The dominant literacy approach from kaiako was whole language (meaning focus) using shared and guided reading, poems, visuals, pictures, early words (whole word look and say), and short comprehension tasks that include relevant, engaging, high quality literacy experiences. There was some mention of phonics (balanced literacy) sounds, blends, handwriting and spelling all done in a multisensory way.

Literacy difficulties

Over the course of their teaching careers, kaiako had noticed the following literacy difficulties:

• Ākonga frustrated with reading (words look different everyday),
• Laboured writing in both te reo Māori and English,
• Challenges with recognising and comprehending te reo Māori sounds and matching them to print – they guess,
• Transferring their oral language ideas onto paper,
• Difficulties with spelling and writing clearly,
• Reluctant writers and readers,
• Often very large handwriting including mixing up capitals and lower-case letters.

This highlights what the research says about bilingual children with dyslexia. They show similar phonological linguistic difficulties in both of their alphabetic orthographic languages (Ijalba & Bustos, 2017; Klein & Doctor, 2003) that impedes their ability to read and write (Geva et al., 2000).

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According to some kaiako, these difficulties affected ākonga attendance and their self-esteem as they were aware of their learning compared to their peers, and therefore hated school. This is why reading difficulties need to be identified early, followed by specific and intensive interventions along with ongoing support to prevent low self-esteem and achievement (Hanks, 2011, cited in MoE, 2020b).

How kaiako tried to meet the literacy learning needs of their ākonga Most kaiako tried to help by using a range of approaches such as teacher aides, assistive technology, reading mileage, discussions, reader writer, blue overlay, and repetition, and reinforced learning through a range of activities, games and strategies. They would break down language and word association to images/ideas, letter of the week, rhyming and spelling list words.

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Those with limited to some knowledge and understanding of dyslexia believed that students have trouble processing visual information, however dyslexia is a genetically inherited brain learning difference with processing the sounds of language (Genesee, 2019, cited in Grosjean, 2019) meaning that it is not a visual problem (Kilpatrick, 2020). Others mentioned difficulties with colour, working memory, retaining information, placement of letters in a word or words in a sentence, mixing words up, writing from right to left and backwards, slow to process, and “neurological challenges with print and their connections” (Kaiako 7).

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A kaiakao mentioned that these ākonga are extremely clever, have great ideas and oral language. Dyslexia appears to run in families (e.g. parent), some will try to hide it and it can cause anxiety. There is a belief that all dyslexic children learn differently and in their own time. Although they may progress differently, there is only one way the brain will learn to read (Dehaene, 2013; Seidenberg, 2017).

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These findings indicate there is very limited research regarding literacy pedagogical practices (Hill, 2020) and there is still a need to develop professional and research knowledge in areas of early literacy teaching and learning in te reo Māori, assessment and relationships between reading, writing and oral language (McNaughton et al., 2006).

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Kaiako knowledge and understanding of structured literacy:

• Limited knowledge and an unclear understanding of the differences between phonological awareness, phonemic awareness and phonics.
• Gaps in kaiako knowledge and understanding of structured literacy (key elements of reading success and instructional principles).
• Knowledge and understanding appears to align heavily with their current literacy practices of meaning (whole language) with some phonics (balanced literacy).
• There appears to be a gap in using diagnostic assessments that assess the early foundational reading skills (phonological and phonemic awareness – away from print) and fluency.
• There appears to be an absence of an intentional, explicit, systematic cumulative approach to helping ākonga learn te reo Māori.
• Gaps in early foundational reading skills, explicit teaching of connecting the sounds to print (alphabetic code) and fluency.
• It appears there are still limited appropriate Māori resources for teaching, unclear specific learning approaches and language assessments.

Kaiako would like support with the following:

• Recognising what dyslexia looks like in the classroom.
• Simple initial assessments.
• Early identification research-based tools.
• Practical interventions.
• Strategies and routines to use for teaching reading, writing, oral language.
• Strong examples of a teaching approach.
• More resources for Māori with a Māori world view.
• Kaiako 19 summed it up with wanting to know “how to diagnose, develop a needs-based long term plan and lesson plans of what and how to teach in an explicit manner”.

Conclusion and recommendations
This research has revealed that dyslexic tendencies can occur within Māori-medium contexts. Although my focus was on te reo Māori, it was interesting to note that kaiako noticed common difficulties that dyslexic children struggle with in both languages (te reo Māori and English).

Selected References to look up

Berryman, M., Walker, R., Reweti, M., O’Brian, K., & McDonald, S. (2002). Kia puta ai te reo: An essential foundation for literacy. Paper presented at the NZARE Conference, Palmerston North, New Zealand.

Bishop, R., Berryman, M., & Richardson, C. (2001). Te toi huarewa: Effective teaching and learning strategies, and effective teaching materials for improving the reading and writing in te reo Māori of students aged five to nine in Māori-medium education. Ministry of Education.

Bishop, R., Berryman, M., & Richardson, C. (2002). Te toi huarewa: Effective teaching and learning in total immersion Māori language educational settings. Canadian Journal of Native Education, 26, 44-61.

Brady, S. (2011). Efficacy of phonics teaching for reading outcomes: Indications from post-NRP research. In S. Brady, D. Braze, & C. Fowler (Eds.), Explaining individual differences in reading: Theory and evidence (pp. 69-96). Psychology Press.

Carrillo, M. S., Alegría, J., & Marín, J. (2012). On the acquisition of some basic word spelling mechanisms in a deep (French) and a shallow (Spanish) system. Reading and Writing, 26, 799-819. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-012-9391-6

Center, Y., & Freeman, L. (1996, July). The use of a structured literacy program to facilitate the inclusion of marginal and special education students into regular classes. Paper presented at the 10th Annual World Congress of the International Association for the Scientific Study of Intellectual Disabilities, Helsinki, Finland. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED405673.pdf

Chapman, J., Arrow, A., Braid, C., Greaney, K., & Tunmer, W. (2018). Enhancing literacy learning outcomes for beginning readers: Research results and teaching strategies. Massey University. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.30668.56967

Cummins, J. (2000b). Language, power and pedagogy: Bilingual children in the crossfire. Multilingual Matters.

Davies, R., Cuetos, F., & Glez-Seijas, R. M. (2007). Reading development and dyslexia in a transparent orthography: A survey of Spanish children. Annals of Dyslexia, 57, 179-198. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-007-0010-1

Douklias, S., Masterson, J., & Hanley, J. R. (2009). Surface and phonological developmental dyslexia in Greek. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 26(8), 705-723. https://doi.org/10.1080/02643291003691106
Durie, M. (2001). A framework for considering Māori educational advancement. Opening address at the Hui Mātauranga Taumata, Turangi.

Farrell, L., Hunter, M., Davidson, M., & Osenga, T. (2019). The simple view of reading. Reading Rockets. https://www.readingrockets.org/article/simple-view-reading?fbclid=IwAR0cvjbDgKBns4WhERDW56aPw0Z17F8oA3p5hjsD4eQOgxZ3_kIpLWW9FjA

Grosjean, F. (2019). Dyslexia, bilingualism and learning a second language: Dyslexia in bilinguals and second language learners. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/life-bilingual/201903/dyslexia-bilingualism-and-learning-second-language

Kilpatrick, A. D. (2020). Equipped for reading success: A comprehensive, step by step program for developing phoneme awareness and fluent word recognition. Casey & Kirsch.

Krägeloh, C., & Neha, T. (2010). Taking pride in te reo Māori: How regular spelling promotes literacy acquisition. New Zealand Studies in Applied Linguistics, 16, 66-76.